Introduction to the Study of Other Cultures
The anthropologist, Clifford Geertz, defines culture as a “historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols…by means of which men can communicate, perpetuate and develop their own knowledge about and attitudes towards life.” All of us here in America have thousands of things that we can take for granted, that we have learned since we were so young that these things seem ‘natural’ even though they are in fact patterns of learned behavior. Examples include things like the ‘natural’ way to eat (using a fork and knife), to sleep (in a bed), the appropriate distance to stand from someone when talking to them, and so on, and so on. In fact, only eating is natural – eating with a fork and knife, or with chopsticks, is cultural. Sleeping is natural, but sleeping on a bed is cultural. Belching is natural, yet in American culture we unnaturally restrain ourselves from doing so because it is impolite. That which is cultural is completely taken for granted within a given culture, so much so that it appears natural; and this is why, when we meet someone from another culture, we often immediately perceive them as ‘impolite’ or perhaps ‘too polite’, as a bit strange, and perhaps as not too bright, since they don’t know they should be standing further away from you when they talk to you! But when the shoe is on the other foot, and an American is the ‘odd man out’ when visiting another culture, then she or he will undergo culture shock, the terrifying realization that millions of people in another country can live perfectly happily without being familiar with, much less taking for granted, the values, traditions, customs and beliefs that you hold dear.
Geert Hofstede calls culture the ‘software of the mind’ (see his excellent book on this subject, Cultures and Organizations, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997). In other words, while human beings all have the same ‘hardware’, the human brain, our ‘software’ or ‘programming’ is rather different. You might say that some of us are running Windows XP, some are running Windows NT, and some are running Linux. A computer running one operating system or the other will (for the most part) work fine in and of itself (OK, this doesn’t quite correspond with reality, but allow me the illustration anyway please!). But when you put software designed to run on one operating system onto a computer running a different one, and suddenly you will get error messages – something does not compute! It is the same experience when you interact with someone from a different culture – their words, assumptions, gestures, values, and other aspects of their culture will not make sense when transferred to your frame of reference.
All human beings are completely the same, completely different, and partly the
same and partly different. This can be diagrammed as seen here on the left. We
are all the same as regards our ‘human nature’ – we are all part of the same
species, we all have the same ‘hardware’ (although men’s and women’s brains are
wired somewhat differently!). We are all completely different as regards our
personalities –and our fingerprints (in fact, the latter are perhaps more
distinctive – try visiting
http://itc.utk.edu/itc/courses/ls151/,
http://haleonline.com/psych/noframe.htm,
http://www.mtr-i.com/tt/t-articl/mb-simpl.htm,
http://frontier.dreamhost.com/askvenu2.htm and/or
http://www.cognitivestyles.com/
to learn more about personality types).
A good example of cultural difference is in the way different cultures view time. In traditional (i.e. most Eastern and African) cultures, trust and friendship is more important than time. One does not hurry on to business matters – first one chats with those one will be dealing with, even if this delays the start of the meeting. In this way, one builds trust and relationships. In the West (i.e. Western Europe, the U.S., Australia and much of South America) one’s schedule is to be adhered to strictly. Business dealings do not generally involve friendship. By prolonging a meeting’s length, one is likely to upset one’s associates and to give an impression of untrustworthiness because one appears unable to keep faithfully to one’s schedule and appointments. We may thus compare the following (the chart is taken from Paul Hiebert’s book, Cultural Anthropology):
5 minutes before |
appointed time servants on time | everyone on time
5 minutes after | mumbled apology advisable
10 minutes after servants late | slight apology needed
15 minutes after | mildly insulting
20 minutes after | full apology needed
30 minutes after | rude
1 hour late on time | very insulting
1 ¼ hours late late | unforgivable
Westerners feel that Easterners are dishonest and rude when they come 20 minutes to half an hour late to an appointment. But when an Easterner says ’11:00’ he or she means ‘between 11 and 12’. In contrast Westerners divide time into strictly-measured hours, minutes and seconds, into which one carefully arranges one’s plans, appointments, and activities so as to fit exactly and not cause delays to one’s own or anyone else’s plans. Neither is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ necessarily, but they certainly are different, and when persons with different assumptions come into contact there is great room for misunderstanding!
This semester, as part of the Change and Tradition core curriculum program, you will be introduced to a small taste of two other major world cultures: those of China and Islam.
Why learning about other cultures is important:
Why is it important that you learn about other cultures? There are a number of reasons. Some may do it simply because they find fascinating the different ways that people think, speak, act, evaluate, and communicate. But let me assume that you are a more pragmatic sort of person, and are interested in the ‘cash value’ of a course like this – apart, that is, from the grade you will receive at the end of it. What is a class like this good for? Let me make a couple of suggestions on how what you learn in this class may prove useful to you in the future:
1) Business: Geert Hofstede’s excellent book on culture is written not primarily out of academic theory, but out of his study of the practical problems faced by one particular modern corporation (IBM), which exists across national and cultural boundaries. An American boss will find that relations with Saudi employees will become strained and difficult if she or he simply treats them as though they were Americans. In the world we live in, understanding culture in general and also specific individual cultures in particular can make the difference between success and failure in the global market and economy. China and the Islamic nations, whose history, culture and literature are the focus of this course, are major players in the world economy. (See for example the article on China at http://www.webofculture.com/updates/global_update_august_2002.asp, or another one (available on-line through the INSPIRE network) “Doing Business in the Eastern Bloc”)
2) Politics and Diplomacy: If your career goal involves anything that relates to international politics and diplomacy, then understanding other cultures is important. Often as Americans we only acknowledge the existence of other societies and nations with their very different values, beliefs, ideologies and interests, when it comes to the point of some sort of crisis or perhaps even war. A better way is to seek to understand other nations and cultures before things come to a crisis. (See the short piece from Time magazine, “The Rest-of-the-World Cup”, for a humorous slant on this aspect of American culture).
3) Religious and Social Work: If you are either a religious believer or simply a conscientious world citizen, you may decide at some point in your life to become involved in some form of relief effort or church mission trip. If this (as is quite likely) involves crossing cultural boundaries, then you will find that understanding other cultures and societies will prevent you from offering what is known as the ‘kindness that kills’. Many well-intentioned people from North America and Western Europe have gone to other cultures hoping to offer a helping hand of some sort. Often, because of a failure to understand the local situation and culture adequately, what began as well-meaning charity has become something not only less-than-helpful, but actually harmful. Understanding other cultures is a key to avoiding such mistakes.
4) Neighbors: If none of these previous factors motivates you, then you can just look at this class as a lesson in good neighborliness in the global village. When you enter an internet chat room, send an e-mail, or visit a web page, you may be interacting with one of the over a billion people in this world that is either Chinese or Muslim! Instead of simply stereotyping, why not learn about these other cultures?
5) If all else fails…this is a required part of the curriculum. You need the grade. Live with it.
And so, without further ado, let us move on to the first of the two major world cultures you will be learning about this semester: China.
Click here to go to the first China page
Chinese Cultural Studies: Understanding Culture http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/culture.html
Traditional Chinese Family http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbfamilism-u.html
The Culture Page http://www.css.edu/users/dswenson/WEB/CULTPIX.HTM
Understanding Cultural Differences and Dynamics http://www.geocities.com/Eureka/Plaza/2286/cd.html
Three Cheers for Asian Values http://www.nationalinterest.org/issues/57/57.glazer.html
Worldwide Classroom: Culture Shock http://www.worldwide.edu/planning_guide/Culture_Re-entry_Shock/
Cultural Differences http://info.citruscollege.com/studyabroad/Handbk/Culture.htm
ITAP International: Article Library http://www.itapintl.com/articlelibrarymain.htm
Refugees: Cultural Orientation http://www.culturalorientation.net/index.html
Bill Hoffa, "Exploring Cultural Differences" http://www.bits.bris.ac.uk/adnam/notes/acc/4.php
Colleen Mills, "Understanding Cultures" http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~commdept/318/318e.html
Bruce LaBrack, "The Missing Linkage" http://www.usc.edu/dept/education/globaled/safeti/v1n1_la_brack.html
(see also here)
Culture Shock - Educate Yourself http://www.juliaferguson.com/shock.html
What Is Culture Shock? http://www.whitman.edu/offices_departments/study_abroad/cultureshock.htm
Culture Shock http://www.casdn.neu.edu/sap/orientation/culture.html
Culture Shock for International Students http://www.uwec.edu/counsel/pubs/shock.htm
Charlotte Thomas, "Take the Shock out of Culture Shock" http://www.petersons.com/stdyabrd/abroad4.html
The Art of Living in Toulouse: Culture Shock http://www.geocities.com/aitonline/shock.html
Thomas J. Milton, "Understanding Culture Shock" http://www.faoa.org/journal/cshckfao.html
Intercultural Communication Home Page http://www2.soc.hawaii.edu/css/dept/com/resources/Intercultural/Intercultural.html
Expat Expert http://www.expatexpert.com/
Project Harmony: Adjusting to a Foreign Culture http://www.projectharmony.org/cc/culture.html
Avoidable Hassles http://www.travelleronline.com/library/handbook/p2_avoidablehassles.htm
SocioSite: Culture http://www.pscw.uva.nl/sociosite/TOPICS/culture.html
JB Intercultural Consulting http://www.culture-at-work.com/
Cultural Connections http://library.thinkquest.org/50055/index.shtml
Cross-Cultural Adjustment http://www.usg.edu/oie/catalog/cross.phtml
Huw Francis, "Culture Shock" http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/expatriate_living/28239
Adjusting to U.S. Social Life http://www3.uakron.edu/oip/handbook/social.htm
American Customs & Things You Need To Know About http://www.salisbury.edu/Students/ISS/intlhdbk/customs.html
American Culture: Myths & Realities http://www.embark.com/nafsa/culture.asp
Culture Bridge: Culture Shock http://www.culturebridge.com/articles/culture_shock.html
Matt Mathew, "A Tale of Two Cultures" http://stylusinc.com/business/india/cultural_tip1.htm
Culture Shock - A World Christian's Manifesto http://www.antioch.com.sg/th/twp/bookbyte/culture/
Religious Culture Shock http://members.aol.com/rdvanreken/rcshock.htm
[Reverse] Culture Shock! http://www.library.utoronto.ca/isc/culture.htm
Culture Shock http://www1.truman.edu/academics/ss/faculty/tamakoshil/culture.html
Overcoming Culture Shock http://www.intl-institute.wisc.edu/news/cshock.htm
Orientation to Ghanaian Culture & Customs http://www.ghanamission.org/orientation_to_ghanaian_culture_.htm
Culture and Personality http://www.stlcc.cc.mo.us/mc/users/vritts/self.html