Throughout human history, most civilizations have used religion to explain the things they cannot understand, such as the origins and nature of the universe. The early Chinese looked to their observations of the natural world as well as their ancestors for these answers. As time passed, religion in China evolved. Slowly, the early gods were forgotten and replaced with the "Three Doctrines" of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism -- ideologies that work both as philosophies and as religions.

Early Chinese Religion

During the Bronze Age (2205-256 BC) in China, the Chinese worshipped many gods and spirits. One of the most important deities during the Shang Dynasty was Ti. Ti means "Deity Above," or "the Lord on High." He was believed to punish people who offended him and reward those who pleased him.

Ti was in charge of all the gods and spirits in the pantheon. The Chinese had spirit gods that represented things found in nature, from specific mountains and streams to the stars in the sky. There were also two gods of the earth, "the God of the Soil," and "Sovereign Earth." They were subject to Ti.

Ti had a royal court in heaven made up of all of the worthy ancestors who had died. These ancestors served Ti and helped him govern. The Chinese worshipped their ancestors, who acted as intermediaries between the gods and humanity. They believed that after death, they would experience a celestial court life very much like the court life they lived on earth. Some of the kings of the first dynasties wanted to bring their servants and officials with them to the afterlife to ensure that their quality of life would be the same. Accordingly, servants and officials were often sacrificed at the funerals of their lords. For example, the Count Wu, who lived during the Ch'in Dynasty (256-206 BC), ordered 66 people sacrificed at his funeral.

Only the noble Chinese who died could become objects of worship. This meant that only the nobility had ancestors to whom they could pray, while the dead of the poor were simply forgotten. However, the Chinese saw worship not as an individual exercise, but one performed for the good of the entire society. For this reason, the poor also enjoyed the benefits of the ancestors' intercession.

The ancient Chinese also had people on earth who acted as mediums for communication between the divine and human beings. Among these intermediaries were priests, who did a number of jobs, from reading prayers to conducting sacrifices or funerals. Priests were highly specialized. Some knew the specific ceremonies performed for hunters before leaving on an expedition. Other priests knew ceremonies for sacrificing to a certain god.

Another type of intermediary in ancient Chinese religion was the augur. An augur asked questions of the gods on behalf of humans, and then used various techniques of divination, such as oracle bones, to find the answers. The augur would ask a question about the future, such as how the harvest would turn out or who was going to win a battle. He would then punch holes in certain places of a tortoise shell or the shoulder-bone from an ox. Then the bone was held over a fire for a short time, until the bone cracked from the heat. Ink was rubbed on the bone to make the cracks more evident, and allow the augur to read the pattern and discern the god's answer.

During the early stages of their religion, the Chinese developed the concept of the Tao or nature. All things found in nature contained two conflicting forces, the yin and the yang. Objects that contained more yin, a female force, were characteristically passive, dark, and cold. To the Chinese, the moon had more yin than yang. Objects that contained more yang, the male force, were hot and full of light like the sun. The yin and the yang were concepts that were carried over into the ideologies of Taoism and Confucianism.

The Three Doctrines

There were three ideologies that became important in Chinese religion. Taoism and Confucianism were native to China and developed in isolation. These three ideologies can be viewed from an intellectual standpoint as philosophies. However, they also have a spiritual element, so scholars also classify them as religions. The third doctrine, Buddhism, was imported from India.

Confucianism

Confucius was born in 551 BC and grew up to become a politician and philosopher. He was by no means attempting to establish a religion, but his teachings would evolve long after his death. While Confucius was alive, the Chou Dynasty started to decay. It was riddled with corruption and internal conflict. Confucius experienced the corruption of the state firsthand when he held a position in the government. He believed that the decline was occurring because the Chinese had abandoned the traditional ways of thinking and living their lives. The old concepts of honor, politeness, morality and social roles had been forgotten. Confucius encouraged his students and followers to reestablish these traditional ideas.

Confucianism filtered into different aspects of Chinese culture. It became an important political concept. Rulers used it to encourage people to do their duty for the government and to act as good citizens. It also became a basis for education. Collections of ancient writings from the past were assembled. They became the "Classics" that students in China memorized and recited in exams.

Confucianism was adapted by other philosophers centuries after Confucius' death. Chu Hsi (1130-1200 AD) and Lu Chiu-yuan (1139-1193 AD), who both lived during the Sung Dynasty, were two men who helped to establish Neo-Confucianism.

This ideology was so entrenched into the people's thinking that it continues to remain at the base of thinking in the east today.

Taoism

The concept of Tao existed in China since the early stages of its religious development. Tao is literally translated as "the path" or "the way." The term has no conclusive definition, but refers to a wide force in nature and is considered the source of all things.

Taoism developed around the same time as Confucianism. According to legends, the most consequential Taoist writing was composed by Lao-tzu. Lao-tzu was born c. 600 BC and later became a librarian for the royal court in Loyang. He was wise enough to see that the Chou Dynasty was nearing its downfall, so he packed up his things and headed west. As he approached the boundary of Chinese territory, a border guard stopped Lao-Tzu and asked him to write down his wisdoms. Lao-Tzu obliged him by writing a book. Then the sage left China for good. This book, which scholars possess today, contains profound sayings written in a simple style.

Taoism in its purist form calls the follower to pursue Tao. This means that he or she should not try to alter nature or force it to do something it was not meant to do. Instead, a follower must remain inactive and avoid making plans. For example, actions considered contrary to Tao included building a house or damming a river. It was also against Tao to deny the good nature of humanity. This meant that the artificial rules made by Confucianism were unnecessary.

Most Taoists were members of the educated elite. However, some of the less educated classes learned about Taoism and altered it somewhat. Their beliefs included more magic and alchemy than the purest form of Taoism.

Buddhism

Buddhism was founded in Indian in the 500's BC by Siddharta Gautana. He was later called "the Enlightened One," or Buddha. The religion came to China along the Silk Road, a trade route that went through China and lead to foreign markets during the Han Dynasty. Buddhism was at first considered to be part of Taoism because the two religions were so similar. However, a number of Buddhist monks came from India to China, and kept the religion from being swallowed by Taoism. Buddhism encourages the follower to learn to throw off self-interest. Through mediation and right living, a Buddhist can reach Nirvana, or the absence of suffering.

The Chinese altered Buddhism somewhat over time. They came to believe that Nirvana was a physical paradise. Also, the Chinese believed that a few individuals who had reached Nirvana had returned to help and guide humans. Buddhism became a very popular religion throughout China and was supported by the patronage of the wealthy.

The coming of Buddhism opened China up to new and increasing trade markets with India. It also gave the Chinese a new perspective on their lives. Buddhism is still practiced in China today.

All three of these religious philosophies were not intolerant of one another, although they did not always agree. Oftentimes, Chinese people subscribed to more than one at a time. Generally, all three influence one another in some way.

Books

Beaver, R. Pierce. Eerdman's Handbook to the World's Religions. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.

Bradley, David G. A Guide to the World's Religions. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc.,1963.

Fellows, Ward J. Religions East and West. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979.

Maspero, Henri. China in Antiquity. University of Massachusetts Press, 1978.

Schafer, Edward H. Ancient China: Great Ages of Man (a timelife series) New York: Time-Life Books, 1967.

Seeger, Elizabeth. The Pageant of Chinese History. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1962,

Reference Books

"Buddhism." Encyclopedia Britannica. 1996.

"China." Encyclopedia Britannica. 1996.

"China." Collier's Encyclopedia. 1995.

"Confucianism." Encyclopedia Britannica. 1996.

Dubs, Homer H. "Confucius." Collier's Encyclopedia. 1995.

Ibid. "Taoism." Collier's Encyclopedia. 1995.

Hamilton, Clarence H. "Buddha and Buddhism." Collier's Encyclopedia. 1995.

"Taoism." Encyclopedia Britannica. 1996.

Periodicals

Carnes, Pack. "The Eight Immortals." World & I. 9.1 (January 1994): 8p. Online. EBSCO. 10 September 1999.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Toward the Heart of Things." Parabola. 24.1 (1999): 9p. Online. EBSCO. 10 September 1999.

"A Trinity of Faiths." World & I. 11.11 (November 1996): 1p. Online. EBSCO. 10 September 1999.

Websites

Traditional Chinese Culture: List of Handouts. 1998. Ohio State University. 8 September 1999. <www.cohums.ohio-state.edu/deall/jin.3/c231/handouts/default.htm> .

Secrets of the Lost Chinese Empire. Ms. Hos McGrane. International School of Amsterdam. 8 September 1999. <www.best.com/~swanson/china/eg_china_menu.html>.

World Civilizations: Chinese Internet Resources. Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 10 September 1999. <www.wsu.edu/~dee/WORLD.HTM>.

~~~~~~~~

By Sara Ann McGill